Sensory Perceptions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 12

Sensory Perceptions - Essay Example This brief overview will examine the sensory perceptions and the factors that affect the authenticity and believability of information from the sensory nerves. Several reasons make people trust their sensory information and believe this information to be true. For instance, in the event that one places his hand on a hot charcoal or pot, the feeling sense sends an impulse to the brain, and one removes the hand from the hot object before it is badly burnt (Miller, 2008). Further, the sense of smell is always accurate, and one can rely on that information to make informed decisions. The smell of smoke can indicate that an item is burning or that there is a fire burning somewhere. There is no reason for one to question the accuracy of the sense of smell. Furthermore, human sense of sight provides reliable information concerning the nature and appearance of the environment that surrounds people (Chaudhuri, 2011). For instance, if an individual sees a person running in the field, there is no doubt that indeed that person is running. Further, one cannot be doubtful of the fact that his eyes can see that there is a heavy down pour in the neighborhood. On the contrary, sensory information can be inaccurate in several ways. For instance, past experiences influence the interpretation of the sensory information and end up giving wrong information to the person who is observing a situation (Chaudhuri, 2011). It is possible for a person with past unpleasant experience of infidelity to misunderstand a woman she notices speaking to her husband. Further, the sensory nerves do not perceive hidden things, and if people rely on this information, they might end up in danger. For instance, the eyes might not spot a thug hiding behind a tree, and one might make wrong judgments that one can walk in the street at night safely (Miller, 2008). The final reason that makes sensory information inaccurate is that people never interpret data from the sensory organs accurately

Final Exam Study Guide Fall Semester 2012 Essay Example for Free

Final Exam Study Guide Fall Semester 2012 Essay Why is it said that the U.S. has a dual court system? There is a federal judicial system and 50 state court systems. What is the meaning of the concept of jurisdiction? A court has the right to hear a particular type of case. What is the meaning of the doctrine of â€Å"presumption of validity?† Courts must assume that, unless the burden of the evidence is clearly to the contrary, legislatures would not enact or executives sign into law measures which violate the constitution. What is the meaning of the term â€Å"stare decisis?†? Legal term meaning let the decision stand. Establishes precedents stand unless overruled. Judges may overrule if they have compelling reasons to establish new precedents. What is the difference between a misdemeanor and a felony? An anti-social conduct that is relatively minor is called a misdemeanor. A felony is a disorderly conduct that is more severe. What happens in the event of a conflict between a state law and a Federal law or a state law and a U.S. treaty? Federal law overrides state law any day. What is meant by â€Å"judicial activism?† Interpretation of the constitution holding that the spirit of the times and the needs of the nation can legitimately influence judicial decision. â€Å"Judicial self-restraint?† a self-imposed limitation on judicial decision making How are Federal judges chosen? Federal judges are nominated by the president and voted on by the senate. What is the term of a Federal judge? Term ends when justice dies. Why has the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee come under fire for the manner in which it â€Å"screens† appointees to the U.S. Supreme Court? Justices are declined if they politically go against the senate. Why did the committee reject Judge Robert Bork as a Supreme Court justice? He did not politically agree with the democratic run senate. What does it mean that Senators Joe Biden, Ted Kennedy and Howard Metzenbaum â€Å"borked† a Supreme Court nominee? They voted against a justice because of their political party. What was the nature of the political uproar over the nomination of Clarence Thomas to be a Supreme Court justice? He was accused of sexual assault. Who is Anita Hill? A law professor who accused Clarence Thomas of sexual assault. What are the provisions of Article III of the U.S. Constitution regarding the Federal judiciary? It establishes the judicial branch of the federal government. It establishes jurisdiction between the courts based on subject matter or the nature of the parties. It declares that the power of judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court. There is no specific provision anywhere in article III giving Federal courts the power of judicial review. What was the importance of Marbury v. Madison? The case that established judicial review. What is judicial review? Review by the Supreme Court of the constitutional validity of a legislative act. What, if anything, can be done to overturn a U.S. Supreme Court decision? Nothing can be done unless it involves amending the constitution, or if the court rules on something that contradicts a previous ruling. Who controls the Supreme Court’s docket? The supreme court itself does. What is the â€Å"rule of four?† The supreme court only hears cases if it grants a writ of certiorari. Where consent of four justices are given. What is a writ of certiorari? A common law writ issued by a superior court to one of inferior jurisdiction demanding the record of a particular case. What is the primary role of the U.S. Court of Appeals? To hear and dispose of the vast majority of cases appealed from the district courts. What are U.S. District Courts? General trial courts of the united states federal court system that hears both civil and criminal cases. When would a Federal District Court have jurisdiction in a case? If a case involved crimes against the united states, suits under national laws involving use of the mails, patent, copyright, trademark and other such technical matters and civil rights laws. What is the difference between a â€Å"petit† and a â€Å"grand† jury? Petit juries have 12 members who decide, based on evidence, if the defendant is guilty or not guilty. Grand juries indict people. Its functions is to decide if the government has a case or not. How are they chosen? Through a jury pool from those serving jury duty. What are their respective functions? To decide if the government has a case, and to decide if the defendant is guilty or not guilty. Also if a person has won or lost a lawsuit. How do cases reach the U.S. Supreme Court? Through appellate and original jurisdiction. Mostly from appeals though sent from the court of appeals. Under what limited circumstances may the U.S. Supreme Court exercise original jurisdiction? When it accepts a suit if it feels a compelling reason to do so. Who determines the appellate jurisdiction of the U.S. Supreme Court? What are some of the political and ideological considerations involved in U.S. Supreme Court appointments? Generally their party affiliation and how they interpret the constitution. Does race, gender, religion, ethnicity matter in a President’s nomination of a Supreme Court justice? Yes. Who are the present nine justices of the U.S. Supreme Court? What are their backgrounds? John G. Roberts Jr., Antonin Scalia, Anthony M. Kennedy, Clearance Thomas, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Steven G. Breyer, Samuel Anthony Alito Jr., Sonia Sotomayor, and Elena Kagan. RELIGION Why did the authors of the Bill of Rights put religious freedom first in the First Amendment? It is more of an article of peace. It was mainly to remove religion from politics. What are the â€Å"wall of separation† and â€Å"accommodationist† positions on the Establishment Clause? Wall of separation believes that church and state should be entirely separated. No affiliation between the two. Accommodationists believe that no religion should be favored, but all should be accommodated. Why have Americans had fewer problems with the â€Å"Free Exercise† Clause than with the â€Å"Establishment† Clause? Free Exercise clauses are only in effect if the religions practices don’t get in the way of any laws. Establishment clauses include clauses that excuse kids from school to go to church, this was very controversial because atheist children were left out. Much more controversy in establishment clauses. What are some of the issues raised by groups like the Amish (Wisconsin v. Yoder), Jehovahs Witnesses and other religious minorities regarding interpretation of the â€Å"Free Exercise† Clause? These allowed laws to be bent for people of certain religions. Wisconsin v. Yoder allows Amish children to be excused from school at 8th grade vs. the age 16. Jehovah’s Witnesses are allowed to be exempt from the draft due to their pacifism. Why did the U.S. Supreme Court rule against prayer in the public schools in the New York Regents prayer case (Engel v. Vitale, 1962)? It was said that New York could not write prayers. It is unconstitutional to do so. What was the nature of Madalyn Murrays objections to the Maryland school prayer/Bible readings law? Her son was left out. Also she was athiest and she viewed the bible as merely a storybook. Why did the Schempp family object to the Pennsylvania law? They felt it was in direct violation of the establishment clause in the first amendment, also it theologically went against the Schempp’s Unitarian views. What did the Supreme Court rule in the companion Murray-Schempp decision of 1963? It ruled 8-1 striking down both the Pennsylvania and Maryland laws requiring prayer. Under what circumstances may students have prayer at their high school graduation ceremonies? As long as it’s student-led and is non-sectarian. May students form prayer and Bible study groups and use public school facilities for their meetings? Yes. What was the Equal Access Act of 1984? It required public secondary schools to allow religious groups to meet on school property if other groups exist. Even if one group is allowed to use the facilities, the school becomes a limited open forum where all groups can use the facilities. What did the Court rule when it was challenged in the 1990 Mergens case? 8-1 upholding the law. May public college officials deny use of campus facilities to religious groups for Bible study and prayer meetings? No, it is discriminatory. One of the most controversial areas is that of â€Å"parochiaid,† or state aid of various types to parochial schools. What three-part test did the Supreme Court devise in Lemon v. Kurtzman? It was called the Lemon Test where there must be a secular purpose rather than a religious purpose, the law cannot advance or inhibit religion, and government cannot be entangled in it. What was the fate of the law, challenged in Lemon, authorizing partial payment (secular subjects only) of teachers’ salaries in parochial schools? It was stricken down. May state and local school districts finance bus rides for children attending non-public schools (Everson v. Board of Education of Ewing Township, NJ, 1947)? Yes. What is the child benefit theory? The law aids the school child rather than a particular religious group. What did the Court rule in June, 2002, in the landmark Cleveland, Ohio, School Voucher Reform Case, Zelman v. Simmons-Harris? It held that 5-4 that Cleveland program did not offend the establishment clause. Can public school students, on parental request, be released from class to attend religion classes, conducted on public school property, during the school day, where the program is supervised by public school administrators (McCullom v. Champaign, Ill., Board of Education)? No, it is not viewed to be abiding by separation of church and state laws. Can students, on parental request, be dismissed from classes to attend churches or synagogues, as part of a program of religious education in public schools (Zorach v. Clauson)? Yes. Under what circumstances are courts likely to uphold or declare unconstitutional nativity displays on public property at Christmas time? Whether or not other religious symbols are there to balance it, also secular symbols like Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer. What did the Supreme Court rule in Donnelly v. Lynch? It upheld the nativity scene on the basis that both religious and secular symbols. County of Allegheny, Pa. v. ACLU? The court concluded that the nativity scene with the words â€Å"glory in the highest† was promoting Christian religion, but the menorah was okay. In the area of free exercise of religion, can children of Jehovah’s Witnesses be expelled from public schools for refusal to salute the American flag? Yes. Why do the Witnesses object to flag salutes or standing for the national anthem? They believe it violates one of the 10 commandments. What did our highest court rule in Minersville, Pa., School District v. Gobitis? 8-1 stating that one could not refuse to pledge allegiance to the flag. West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette? The court reversed itself, saying it was okay to excuse one’s self from saluting the flag or standing at the national anthem due to religious beliefs. How did the Supreme Court broaden the rights of conscientious objectors during the Vietnam War? It allowed any passifists who were against not only one war, but all wars to be exempt from the draft rather than just religious passifists. What did the Court rule in the Seeger, Welsh and Gillette cases? Seeger ruled that a belief in a traditional God or religion was unnecessary in order to be exempt. Welsh held that humanistic conviction was equivalent to religion. In Gillette held that one must be opposed to all wars in order to be exempt. What did the Court hold in the Mormon polygamy case (Reynolds v. U.S.)? They ruled against it. Polygamy is illegal in Utah. Why did the Roberts Court grant a religious exemption from some civil rights laws in Hossana-Tabor v. E.E.O.C. (2012)? The separation between church and state allows this. EXPRESSION (SPEECH AND PRESS) There are a number of theories about how the First Amendment’s free speech and press guarantees ought to be interpreted. What is the â€Å"absolutist view,† held by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and the late Justices Hugo Black and William O. Douglas? They rejected line-drawing, what the law says goes in a literal sense. â€Å"when it says no law, it means no law. The â€Å"two-tier theory,† associated with the late political philosopher Alexander Meiklejohn? The press may say anything about the government. The â€Å"line-drawing† position, held by most judges? Establishing a number of standards to guide them between permissible and impermissible forms of free expression. What is meant by the â€Å"preferred freedoms† concept? First amendment freedoms should be given potential treatment by the court because they are essential in a democratic society. What is â€Å"commercial speech?† Speech done on behalf of an individual or a co mpany in order to produce a profit. Why did John Stuart Mill oppose censorship in his classic work, On Liberty? John Stuart Mill believes that the majority should not always influence the minority because if the majority is wrong, then the truth goes unheard, but if the majority is right, then the minority doesn’t understand why they are wrong. What is the argument against the suppression of ideas that we find not only unpopular, but even hateful? All ideas must be allowed, even if those ideas are sexist, racist, or angering. If, as judges say, the line must be drawn somewhere and free expression is not an absolute value, then what guidelines have they used to draw that line? Anything can be said, even violent things, as long as there is no evidence of intention to commit lawless acts. The right to swing your arms ends right as my nose begins. What is the â€Å"clear and present danger doctrine† (Schenck v. U.S.)? Enacted during WWI which created the Espionage act, where nobody could say anything that interfered with allied war efforts like encouraging young men to dodge the draft, or any other armed forces recruiting. The â€Å"evil tendency test† (Gitlow v. New York )? The government does not protect the expression which created a tendency toward illegal actions. The â€Å"clear and probable danger test† (Dennis v. U.S.)? The law prohibited the advocacy to overthrow the U.S. government and the conspiracy as well. What did the Supreme Court rule in the Smith Act cases of the 1950s? it is illegal to violently overthrow a government. 70 communists were convicted after this was established. What was the significance of Yates v. U.S.? Mere theoretical advocacy to overthrow the U.S. government by force and violence was a judicially protected right. What is the difference between liberty and license? Liberty means freedom under law ( the right to do something as long as nobody is hurt.) License is an abuse of liberty( such as libelous publication or slanderous speech). What is meant by the doctrine of â€Å"no prior restraint† on publication? A doctrine that states that published material does not have to be pre-screened in order to be published and viewed by the public. What was the significance of Near v. Minnesota? The court ruled that the press gag law was unconstitutional due to the fact that it restricts freedom of the press. New York Times-Washington Post v. U.S.? These newspapers published pentagon papers that were a study of the U.S. decision making in the Vietnam War. It embarrassed the President and the government. This resulted in the lifting of the district court’s restraining order on the press due to the failure to prove that publication of the documents jeopardized national security. How and when can First Amendment values collide with those of the Sixth Amendment? The right of the defendant in a criminal case to a fair trial by an impartial jury of his or her peers. Sometimes, judges have concluded, the press has cond ucted trial by newspaper. What are restrictive orders, called â€Å"gag orders† by the media? The court’s force of the media to withhold certain information from being published for varying circumstances that may hinder a current court case or could cause damage to someone’s (possibly the government’s) reputation What steps can trial judges take to protect the rights of the accused? Through â€Å"right to reply laws†, closing court rooms to the media, and implementing gag orders on certain subjects. Do reporters enjoy a â€Å"privileged† relationship with their sources? The supreme court says no, but there are shield laws that allows reporters to withhold certain information. What is the meaning of the phrase â€Å"burning the source?† Giving up the identity of a journalist’s source so that person can be questioned in court. Can reporters be held in contempt of court and jailed for refusal to turn over notes, tapes, or to offer testimony when so ordered (Branzburg v. Hayes)? Yes What, in theory, is the problem with â€Å"shield laws?† Some believe that it is a mistake to let the government grant immunity, this implies that the state can also withdrawal it. Can judges close their courtrooms to the press and public during preliminary proceedings (Gannett v. DePasquale)? Yes. Can judges close down a trial itself, excluding media and public (Richmond Newspapers v. Virginia)? No, the right to attend criminal trials is implicit in the grantee of the first amendment. Do television cameras in the courtroom prevent the defendant from receiving a fair trial? Sometimes, in the pre-trial stage, the jury is permeated with information about the case that will not allow a fair trial. What did the Supreme Court rule in Estes v. Texas and Chandler v. Florida? The overturning of the swindling conviction of petitioner Billy Sol Estes, holding that his 14th Amendment due process rights were violated by the publicity associated with the pretrial hearing. For Chandler v. Florida Canon cameras and electronic media are permitted in the judicial proceedings subject to the control of the presiding judge. When are TV cameras permitted in the courtroom today? Always, but it can be taken away by the presiding judge’s accord. What is the situation with respect to Federal courts? Cameras are not allowed in federal courts. Do political candidates have the â€Å"right to reply† to editorial attacks by the media? Yes. What happened to the Florida law giving them such a right when it was challenged in Miami Herald v. Tornillo? It was immediately stricken down because a newspaper involves a â€Å"crucial process† of editorial judgment that may not be regulated by the state. What is meant by â€Å"symbolic free expression?† Expressing ideas by silent, non-verbal communication. What did the Supreme Court rule in the draft-card burning case (OBrien v. U.S.)? It was criminally illegal. Tinker v. Des Moines? Wearing black arm-bands in protest of Vietnam could not be outlawed because this form of expression is silent and caused little disruption. Do Americans have the right to burn the flag? Currently, Yes. What did the Supreme Court rule in Texas v. Johnson? It is legal free speech to desecrate a flag. U.S. v. Eichman? Flag desecration is a form of constitutional free speech. What was the fate of the Flag Protection Amendment? It fell 1 vote short with 66 for and 34 against. Only 3 republicans opposed it. How did Senators Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton vote on the measure? They both opposed the amendment. What are â€Å"fighting words?† Inflammatory speech inviting violence, which are not protected by the 1st and 14th amendments. Calling a policeman a fascist is an example. What is â€Å"hate speech?† Speech that arouses anger, alarm, and resentment toward others on the basis of race, gender, creed, color, and religion. What did the Court decide in R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul (1992) and Virginia v. Black (2003)? Supreme court ruled that the city statute against cross burning is unconstitutional, it interferes with free speech rights. For Virginia v. Black, the court ruled that making a law against cross burning is not unconstitutional, but cross burning cannot be considered prima facie evidence of intent to discriminate. What did the Supreme Court rule in Snyder v. Phelps in 2011? Speech on the sidewalk about a public issue cannot be liable for a tort of emotional distress, even if the speech is outrageous. Court ruled 8-1 about it. Should free speech include the right to carry signs reading â€Å"God Hates Fags,† â€Å"Thank God for Dead Soldiers,† â€Å"Thank God for 9-11?† No. Have some universities, such as the University of Michigan and University of Wisconsin, gone too far in banning offensive speech (ethnic and racial slurs), according to the Federal courts? Yes, they are in violation of the first amendment. What is libel? Libel is false printed or broadcast statements that intend to damage someone’s reputation. Slander? False statements made by someone looking to damage someone else’s reputation. What are the main elements which must be established to have â€Å"actionable libel?† defamation, identification, publication, and fault. What are the main defenses used by media in libel cases? That freedom of the press is paramount in a democratic society. What was the significance of New York Times v. Sullivan? It set a standard that one cannot sue a newspaper for libel unless one can address that he/she was the defamed party. What is â€Å"actual malice?† libelous remarks with knowledge that the remarks were false, or that there was lack of disregard on whether or not the remark was true. What is â€Å"hot news† (AP.v.Walker)? news that is current and controversial, but not always journalistically accurate. What is the â€Å"prudent publisher rule† (Butts v. Curtis Publishing Co.)? Publishers must follow the professional standards of journalism. This included verification of facts, particularly when the deadline is less than monumental. What part of the Bill of Rights guarantees American citizens â€Å"Freedom of Assembly?† First amendment.m Freedom of Association? First amendment. Can cities require permits for parades, sound trucks and demonstrations? Yes Under what circumstances? To ensure peace and tranquility. Why did the ACLU argue on behalf of the Nazis in the Skokie, Illinois, case? They believed the Nazi’s potential to incite violence among the Jewish community did not warrant oppression of the right to assemble. Why was the Roberts Court’s 2010 decision striking down part of the McCain-Feingold (Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission) so controversial? It allowed corporations to fund ads and movies for and against presidential candidates. How did President Obama react to the decision? He was very mad. He said foreign businesses are going to be funding these commercials now. What impact has this decision had on American elections? It has allowed much more money to be spent on elections. Rich corporations could potentially control an election. What was the impact of the courts striking down the Arizona Citizens Clean Elections Act? It left a lot of people angry. Stating that it was meant to level the playing field, not restrict Free Speech. Those who opposed the law said in a democracy, campaigning is not supposed to be a game.

Appeasement Policies: Britain And France

Appeasement Policies: Britain And France The appeasement policy was a policy adopted by Britain and France and it was a major player in the outbreak of the war. Appeasement was first introduced in the mid 1930s by Stanley Baldwin who was then the British Prime Minister. But it was Neville Chamberlain who changed this appeasement policy when he ascended to power in 1937. The British government defines appeasement as the settlement of issues through negotiation and compromise. The British were very committed to this policy and they followed it confidently with the hope that it will reduce the chance of a world war. Britain and France sought to appease Hitler not merely because it was militarily, economically and politically rational to do so, but because of personal judgments made by Chamberlain. It is clearly evident that right from the start, Chamberlain did not clearly understand Hitlers motive and to his best understanding, appeasement would be the best strategy to avert war. He assumed that Hitlers motive was just to ama ss and maintain power which means possibility for war would be trashed by German people. Sequence of events during pursuance of appeasement policy clearly illustrates that Chamberlain did not understand Hitlers motive at all and his approach to appeasement policy could not work. While appeasement policy was mainly meant to avert war, it did not serve its purpose as Chamberlain failed to understand Hitler and the Nazi motives in general. He did not take quick steps to rearm Britain because he did not see any threat to Britain in particular and to Western Europe in general from the Germans. Therefore Chamberlain felt free to pursue the appeasement policy and disregard a military alliance with France to wage a war against Germany. It is therefore evident that Chamberlain inaccurately thought that appeasement was the only means that would stop the way. He pursued the appeasement from his own convictions and that is why he went to Germany to meet Hitler without the approval of the cabine t. He trusted Hitler and he thought he would keep his word once his demands were met. He sought this appeasement so as to conciliate with Germany to have a stable Europe  [1]  . His personal view was that Germany would be satisfied with what he offered and especially the restoration of its former colonies. There are reasons that made Chamberlain seek appeasement with Hitler. One of them is that he represented the British citizens who did not want a war as they were in the process of healing the wounds from World War One. Also, he did not want to go to war with Germany because the fall of Germany would mean the victory of the Soviet Union and the spread of communism. Chamberlain and the British citizens did not want this to happen. So Chamberlain was trying as much as he could to avoid a war with Germany and at the same time the spread of communism. The appeasement policy that Chamberlain campaigned for was merely to avoid war. He took a number of steps to ensure that the war did not happen but they failed at the end. He even traveled to Germany without Cabinet approval to pursue appeasement with Hitler. But it can also be seen as a strategy that he used in order to gain some time in rearming his forces  [2]  . The perception by Chamberlain of the methods employed by Nazi and the aim of Hitler was inaccurate. This inaccurate perception is what resulted into adoption of appeasement by Britain and France. Instead of preventing world war two, the appeasement policy can be said to be its cause especially after its failure. Chamberlain persisted in use of persuasion towards Germany rather than deterrent in addressing the grievances made by Hitler. In doing this he was convinced that Hitler wanted only to maintain power and if the grievances and demands that Germany raised were met, the German people would quench the possibility of a war  [3]  . Chamberlain thought that he could single handedly and as an individual avert the possibility of Second War through his appeasement. That is why he met Hitler on three separate occasions without Cabinet approval and without the presence of British ministers. Though there was a decrease in support from the British people and the foreign office, Chamberlain continued to believe strongly in this policy and he did not see its failure. He failed to address the arguments that were presented by allies who had been angered by the British foreign policy e.g. France. This made France an unwilling follower of Britain foreign policy even though France did not believe in its success. Chamberlain believed that any strong approach towards Hitler other than appeasement would anger him and possibly provoke him into starting a war. Therefore he did not emphasize on military production. The industries in Britain were freed to produce armaments by the recession of 1938 and the cabinet approved a potential war in February 1936  [4]  . Chamberlain was so blinded by appeasement policy that he did not assess any possible alternatives. He was confidence and optimistic that appeasement policy would succeed  [5]  . The alternative that was there was an alliance with the Soviet Union to counter Hitler but Chamberlain would not overlook the differences that Britain had with USSR on communism. He believed that in doing this, he would be giving communism a chance to spread. His erroneous judgments can be seen when he did not pursue a military alliance with France after the Munich conference when he had the chance to check the expansion of Germany. Instead he reasoned that appeasement would stop Hitler from expanding German territories. He therefore did not give any other alternative a chance  [6]  . The Versailles Pact which had been signed after the First World War with an aim of ending all wars was greatly hated by the Germans  [7]  . It was argued that the treaty, if it were to stand, wound ruin the economic status of Germany. This treaty is seen by some historians as the lead cause of the Second World War. Chamberlains misjudgment of Hitlers intention can be seen especially due to his surrender to Hitlers growing demands. This was clearly seen in 1940 when Chamberlain desperately wanted to maintain peace through fulfilling the demands made by Hitler. Chamberlain and Baldwin chose to neglect the armaments of Britain to the edge of national annihilation  [8]  . This therefore means that there were other possible alternatives but which Chamberlain failed to look at. Winston Churchill who came to power after Chamberlain viewed appeasement as a humiliation to France and Britain and he termed it as a long series of miscalculations and misjudgments of men and facts and which led Britain into an endless war with the Nazis  [9]  . Many Britons saw hope after the signing of the Versailles treaty. They wanted to avoid another war and that is why the British government had to give in to the demands presented by Hitler  [10]  . Britain felt that Germany had been treated unfairly due to the restriction imposed upon it. Chamberlain felt that if the restriction were lifted, Germany would become happier. This perception of Germany by the general population gave Hitler confidence and also provided him with an opportunity to acquire more lands without a war. The British economy was fairing very badly hence Britain was not ready for a war. It was not even in a position to fund and rearm its military force due to the bad economic status. So Chamberlain tried as much as possible to avoid a war with Germany. The way Hitler was progressing meant that there was not even time for Britain to organize war strategies and prepare its force. So Chamberlain had to find a way of avoiding war and/or gaining sometime to rearm the military. The only solution present was appeasement  [11]  . To the best of Chamberlain assumptions, German would not pursue another war after all the demands presented had been met. However, it is evident that Chamberlain did not understand the Hitlers motive. Chamberlain assumed that Hitler was only interested in maintaining power. Even when it became evident that Hitler were rearming, Chamberlain turned a blind eye and did not take any step to rearm Britain forces. However, Hitlers main aim was to make Germany as super power and a united Germany. He also wanted to enlarge the Germany territory through what he called recapturing of lost territories  [12]  . Hitler believed that German will become strong again only through the use of military aggression and war. He directly challenged the Versailles treaty in 1934 by rearming his armed forces and preparing them for war. This he did through production of tanks, submarines and aircrafts in huge masses. When it was announced that Hitler was rearming his military forces, which was in conflict with the Versailles pact, Britain and France protested to the League of Nations with the hope that it can be stopped  [ 13]  . The League of Nations did not try to stop these aggressive rearmament plans by Hitler on the grounds that there were no military or economic sanctions that had been imposed. It was due to the appeasement which made Hitler more confident. In short France and Britain simply turned a blind eye on this public breach of Versailles treaty. He was confident that France and Britain as the appeasers would not stop him. He did this knowing very well that he was flouting the Versailles treaty. Britain and France did not stop Hitler from taking over Rhineland because he was taking back what belonged to Germany originally. At this stage, France could have stopped the reoccupation of the Rhine region but she did not want to start a war with Germany due to the lack of support from the British. Hitler did not want negotiations with France. He instead wanted to deal with Britain and Chamberlain especially. This may be because Hitler saw a sign of weakness and poor perception in Chamberlain. This is what forced France to follow Britain in the pursuance of appeasement even though it disputed its success. In supporting Britain, France wanted a strong militarily alliance with Britain that could maintain a war with Germany once the appeasement policy failed. Though the pursuance of appeasement by France was manipulated by Britain, France would not back off because it had found an ally in Britain. Because France would not be in a position to fight Germany on its own, having Britain on its side was of great importance  [14]  . This was because France was undergoing a financial crisis, industrial hold ups and a shortage in skilled labor. Chamberlain thought that France was behind him in his appeasement policy but he failed to see the hidden agenda pursued by France in its support for appeasement. The politics and governance in France were different from those in Britain. While Chamberlain as an individual dominated the foreign policy in Britain, France had a rapid turnover of cabinets and governments. The indictments of appeasement in France focused on the whole political players but not on one individual. Chamberlain thought that by allowing Hitler to take over the region that formally belonged to Germany, he would at least stop there. Hitler invaded Austria in 1938 and he declared Anschluss. In doing this he was breaking the Versailles treaty. The Australian chancellor at the time pleaded with France and Britain to help but these two countries did nothing about it. Chamberlain sent a protest note to Berlin  [15]  . He addressed the cabinet after Hitlers army crossed the border and he blamed both Germany and Austria. Even though, he condemned strongly the methods used by Hitler to annex Austria  [16]  . Chamberlain saw Hitler as a man who can be trusted and in his intervention he persuaded the president of the republic of Czech to hand over Sudetenland to the Germans. In doing this, Chamberlain thought that this was the last demand that Hitler would ask for. The annexation of Australia in 1938 and the invasion of Czechoslovakia as a whole is what opened the eyes of the appeasers and they saw that no matter how much they tried to appease Hitler, war was inevitable. After giving in to all the demands made by Hitler and his continual invasion of Europe, the appeasers realized that the appeasement policy was a failed policy. Chamberlain did not see Czechoslovakia as an issue that could result to war. He had simply assumed that it was just a conflict between two neighboring countries and that their conflict could not result to a world war. In 1938, Chamberlain is said to have observed: How horrible. Fantastic, incredible it is that we should be digging trenches and trying on gas masks here because of a quarrel in a far-away country between people of whom we know nothing!  [17]  . This quote suggests that the reason why Chamberlain pursued appeasement was to keep Britain safe while allowing Germany to control other nations. As long as Hitler did not interfere with Britains interest, Chamberlain was committed in pursuing appeasement. He believed that Hitler would be only interested in Eastern Europe and would not care to head Western Europe. That is why Britain and France did not take any military action when Germany started its rearming, the remilitarization of Rhine land and the Anschluss with Austria. The reason why the British policy of appeasement was vague in the 1930s was because the British politicians were unable to accurately the greatest threat to Britain and therefore come up with appropriate means and strategies to deal with them. Therefore Britain did not make any attempt to unite with America, USSR or France  [18]  . Though the British people were at first excited by Chamberlains avoidance of another war, the public opinion changed in 1938-8 after Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia. The public mood in France and Britain changed and Chamberlain chose to ignore this and instead continue with appeasement secretly. He had ordered that the word appeasement be used as little as possible in his speeches  [19]  . The famous peace in our time speech that was delivered by Chamberlain on September 30, 1938 showed that Hitler was a man who could not be trusted. It also showed that appeasement policy had failed as a means to prevent war. The main reason why Britain and France embraced the appeasement policy was because they did not want the whole of Europe to be dragged into a world war by Hitler. It was a policy being persued due to the lessons learnt from world war one. Appeasement policy can be seen as a bad policy that was aimed at achieving world peace while sacrificing some countries like the way Britain and France did to try and appease Hitler at the mercies of Czechoslovakia. Though the appeasement policy led to the strengthening of Germany, and the breakout of war, there are other reasons why France and Britain adopted this policy. These two countries were faced with economic problems in the 1930s. The British economy was severely weakened by the Wall Street crash of 1929 which made the government put the rearming of its armed forces on hold. Chamberlain wanted as much as possible to avoid war. That is why he adopted the appeasement policy. On the other hard, France was not in a position to maintain a war. It needed the support of Britain. It is because of this that it followed Britain in seeking the appeasement. This was because he wanted peace and stability that would allow economic growth for the whole of Europe. The Britons had a positive attitude towards the appeasement in the hope that it would reduce the chances of a war outbreak. Thus it can be concluded that appeasement was a British government policy that was fully supported by the citizens. Britain did not want a war between it and Germany. This was because it was threatened by communist USSR and not because it feared Germany. In case Germany fell, there was a possibility of spread of communism and Britain did not want this to happen. That is why it was in the favor of appeasement policy. Another fear that embraced Britain was forming a coalition with USSR which was its bitter rival. That is why Chamberlain desperately sought for appeasement at the mercies of other countries just to make sure that they did not join hands with USSR in a war against Germany  [20]  . The signing of the Munich agreement is viewed by many as a betrayal especially by Britain. What Chamberlain was doing is to buy some time to rearm British forces. Hitler on the other hand thought it as a weakness and a sign of fear of the appeasers  [21]  . This was a great mistake as all that the appeasers wanted was to preserve the world peace. This is what made him bold and gain confidence and a sen se of security. . Hitler had managed to convince the appeasers that he had no any intentions of aggression through his peace propaganda. This had in a way fooled Britain and France who were not in favor of a war but wanted world peaceful coexistence. The appeasers continued to adopt the appeasement policy and this assured Hitler that they would do anything just to avoid a war. This made him think that he could continue to expand his demands and the appeasers would still continue to give in to them. It was this appeasement policy that gave Hitler a foundation and a base to increase the demands after every successful conquest that he achieved. Conclusion There are many opinions and views about the appeasement policy with some critics saying it was a betrayal and sacrifice of some nations for the benefit of others. Others say that it was Chamberlains strategy of buying time to rearm Britain. But from Chamberlains point of view, all that he wanted was to avoid another world war. It is not the appeasement policy that triggered the world war two but instead it was the greed of Hitler to enlarge the German territory and make Germany a superpower. The failure of the appeasement policy was because it was only Chamberlain who fulfilled his part of the bargain. He was convinced, on trying to appease Hitler that he (Hitler) was an honest trustworthy and honorable man which was a mistake and a misjudgment on his part. Chamberlain felt that he had been betrayed by Hitler and that his appeasement policies were failing him. That is when he decided to take on a hard line approach towards the Nazi. Britain and France began rearming themselves. Italy on the other hard invaded Albania in April of 1939. It was Hitlers invasion of Poland that made these two countries declare war and Second World War officially began on 3rde September 1939. Though he really wanted to avoid the war, there came a time that he knew that war was in evitable. It was only after the failure of the negotiations between him and Hitler that he declared war against Germany Teleworking what it is? Teleworking what it is? Teleworking what it is? TELEWORK is a form of organising and/or performing work, using information technology, in the context of an employment contract/relationship, where work, which could also be performed at the employers premises, is carried out away from those premises on a regular basis. This agreement covers teleworkers. A teleworker is any person carrying out telework as defined above. (Emilio Gabaglio, Georges Jacobs, Andrea Bonetti, Rainer Plassmann, 16.07.2002 EU agreement among ETUC, UNICE/UEAPME and CEEP, p. 2). So it can be stated that teleworking is arrangement between employer and employee in which an employee regularly performs officially assigned duties at home or other work sites which are convenient for the employee. The Office of Personnel Management (OPM in US), describes telework as an alternative work arrangement for employees to conduct all or some of their work away from the primary workplace. The work location can be a residence, a telecenter, an office closer to the employees residence, or another acceptable location. The telework schedule may be fixed or episodic.(U.S. Office of Personnel Management, http://www.opm.gov/index.asp, date taken 29.01.2010).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Teleworking is also named telecommuting, flexiwork, sometimes flexiplace, e- commuting, e-work, telework, working at home (WAH), or working from home (WFH). Different types of teleworking. In general there are three types of telework: full time, part time, and situational. Full time telework means that the employee performs and completes all or almost all duties outside of a traditional office. In this meaning full time teleworking can be named as home-based work. Part time telework means that the employee performs and completes duties outside of a traditional office on a regularly scheduled basis, but not five days per week. For instance, the employee may telework one or more days a week, every two weeks, or several days in a month. Situational telework means that the employee do not telework on a regular basis. This type of telework may happened in case of medical problem, weather or hazardous conditions, that do not allowed employee to get to traditional office in a safe condition and way, sometimes situational telework may be caused by preparing special project which needs high concentration and doesnt need present of the employee in traditional office. Ursula Huws, an Associate Fellow of IES, is an established international authority on teleworking, states different approach to types of teleworking. The five main types of teleworking according to Ursula Huws are: Multi-site teleworking This form of teleworking means that employee rotates between working on the employers premises and working elsewhere. Typically, the secondary worksite is the home, but it may be a telecottage, telecentre or other outpost. Tele-homeworking Tele-homeworking means work which is based only in the home and carried out for a single employer, even if the worker does not have formal employee status. This type of teleworking generally involves fairly low-skilled work carried out by people who are tied to the home by the need to care for children or other dependants. Freelance teleworking Freelance teleworkers, in contrast to tele-homeworkers, work for a different clients, rather than a single employer. Mobile teleworking Mobile teleworking has evolved from more traditional types of work, which can be qualified in groups such as travelling sales representatives, inspectors or maintenance engineers. The new technologies, especially the development of portable equipment such the notebook computer, the mobile telephone, the portable fax machine, have created type of mobility which allowed increase of amount of professional, technical and managerial work that can be carried out on the road. Relocated back-office functions The first four categories of teleworking involve activities which employee can carry out in isolation away from the employers premises. Relocated back-office is other form of teleworking which takes place on remote office sites. Many big companies have been noticed a rapid growth in specialist centres carrying out activities such as data entry, customer service, airline bookings, telephone banking and mail-order. These centres operate on a subcontracted basis or under the direct control of an employer located at a distance. These type of teleworking face different problems including: lack of promotion prospects, health and safety problems and equal opportunities issues, for instance fairly low-paid work carried out by women (Teleworking: Guidelines for Good Practice, Huws U. Report 329, Institute for Employment Studies, 1997.). Teleworking advantages and disadvantages to employers and employees.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Telework brings a variety of advantages and disadvantages to employees and employers in many different aspects from work environment to health issues. I am going to point and describe, in my opinion, the most important benefits and negatives of telework to both employers and employees. Advantages to employers. Increase of employees productivity, because telework help to avoid common interruption to work in traditional office, what provides to better concentration. Employees are not late to work because of travel difficulties or unpredictable events, for example breakdown of a car, delays in public transport. Advantages of a health matter in meaning employees take off less time due to illness: employees who are long-time unwell and not able to work in traditional office, might be able to work from home, employees during recovering period from serious illness might be able to work from home, because employees who work alone are more isolated, they are less likely to contact or spread diseases such as flu, colds, viruses, etc. working in private, convenient place for employees is less stressful and could be less exposure to pollution, it can cause that teleworkers can be generally in better health, employees who work at home, obviously, are less likely to be injured while commuting. Employee work at home is fully using productive time for only work, compare to traditional office where at the end of work usually employees start to prepare to leave and clear their desk few minutes before the end of the work day. Help in recruiting process because: flexible working is more attractive, especially to graduated young people, employers have much more possibilities to seek employees, especially among disabled, people who take care of young children or the elderly, it is also encouraging to seek potentially employees away from city centres or even from different regions and countries. Reducing costs in everyday using of traditional office: saving in reducing employees benefits, for instance company car, fuel, public transport season tickets, parking spaces or payable car park permissions etc., saving in reducing or eliminating catering subsidies or the facilities themselves. Advantages to employees. Telework help to avoid common interruption to work in traditional office, what provides to faster implement projects and reduce wasting of time. Travel difficulties are avoided. From employee site it means: avoid loss of pay because of lateness or non-arrival, avoid stress on the way to work place. Less time taken off due to illness: if employee is too ill to come to traditional office, might still be well enough to work at home, employees during recovering period from serious illness might be able to work from home and finish priority projects on time, work alone employee is less likely to contact or spread diseases such as flu, colds, viruses, etc., improved general health because of less stress and exposure to pollution. Better personal safety, because reducing risk of accident on the way to work and back. More time to spend with family because time to travel to work is reduced to zero. In this meaning more time in case of family illness, household maintenance etc. Possibility to reduce cost of living through: living out of city centre in cheaper areas, reduce fuel cost, car maintenance because travel to work and back is excluded. Disadvantages to employers. Managers has only a little or even lack of control over employees who work on teleworking base. Because lack of control, managers cant check the productivity, they assess employees work only through deadlines of projects submissions. Security issues of data stored and general database; if employees work on their own PCs or laptops, do they have proper programs installed to secure companys data stored. Issues included persuade employees to work harder and more productive if manager cant see process of their work; how many brakes they take etc. Lost of physical contact with clients and employees; disadvantages connect with lack of reed of body language of employees their physical reaction on different situations and tasks, their way of socialising: making friendships with one another can show manager of employees ability to work in group, leadership etc. Disadvantages to employees. Employees work on telework basis, in their chosen places, cant compare their productivity to employees who work on regular basis in companys office. It can produce some kind of frustration and unfair feelings. Employees who work on telework basis can be afraid of additional costs of working at their chosen places for example: decorate an area for their Home Office, have extra phone lines installed, buy additional computer equipment and software to protect data and system, furnished their Home Office. Employees working at home will have to do own typing, filing and other office function. Telework employees will lose subsidised food beverages, company car, public transport etc. (1995-1999 Telework Analytics International, Inc. All Rights Reserved, http://www.teleworker.com/pro_con.html, taken 27.02.2010).

The Magic Of Chaos By Peter Carroll :: essays research papers

The Magic of Chaos Crowley certainly helped put the boot in against monotheism but the process was already well advanced. Science, which had basically evolved out of renaissance magic, had more or less finished monotheism as a serious parasite on advanced cultures. Crowley was enthusiastic about science and appropriately so for his era, but in the work of Austin Spare we begin to detect a certain foreboding. However it is Spare's work that appears more austere and scientific when compared to some of Crowley's more baroque symbolic extravagances. Spare rejected the classical symbologies of forgotten ages and sought the magic of his own personal arcana. Using the minimum of hypotheses he evolved a magic from his own racial memories and subconscious. Independently of complex systems he developed effective techniques of enchantment and divination requiring only ordinary language and pictures. Spare's work forms the bridge between an older style of magic brought to fruition by Crowley (which derived most of its appeal, power and liberating potential from its religious style of anti-religion) and the new magic. The new approach is characterised by a kind of scientific anti-science. This is increasingly becoming known as Chaos Magic. It would be no more useful to dub Chaos Magic as pseudo-science than it would be to dub Crowley's ideas as pseudo-religion. It is astrology as it is normally practised that is mere pseudo-science much as satanism and freemasonry are pseudo-religion. Chaos Magic attempts to show that not only does magic fit comfortably within the interstices of science but that the higher reaches of scientific theory and empiricism actually demand that magic exists. This is somewhat analogous to the way in which many religious theories implied the possibility of theurgic or demonic magic. The best magic has always had a strong antinomian flavour. The most remarkable magicians have invariably fought against prevailing cultural norms and obsessions. Their victories represent not only a personal liberation but also an advance for humanity. History bequeaths us no records of the renegade shamanist magicians who must have brought about the advent of paganism, but we know a little of the anti-pagan magicians who created monotheism: Akhenaton, Moshe, Gautam, and so on. As monotheism became a steadily more repressive and obscene force, a new generation of magicians arose and fought it. Some fought too openly and were destroyed; others were more subtle and planted effective seeds of destruction on a purely philosophical level, and others hastened its destruction by taking theological and theurgical ideas to outrageous conclusions. The roll of honour is here much larger, including such notables as Gordiano Bruno, Cornelius Agrippa, John Dee, Cagliostro, Eliphas Levi, and recently, The Magic Of Chaos By Peter Carroll :: essays research papers The Magic of Chaos Crowley certainly helped put the boot in against monotheism but the process was already well advanced. Science, which had basically evolved out of renaissance magic, had more or less finished monotheism as a serious parasite on advanced cultures. Crowley was enthusiastic about science and appropriately so for his era, but in the work of Austin Spare we begin to detect a certain foreboding. However it is Spare's work that appears more austere and scientific when compared to some of Crowley's more baroque symbolic extravagances. Spare rejected the classical symbologies of forgotten ages and sought the magic of his own personal arcana. Using the minimum of hypotheses he evolved a magic from his own racial memories and subconscious. Independently of complex systems he developed effective techniques of enchantment and divination requiring only ordinary language and pictures. Spare's work forms the bridge between an older style of magic brought to fruition by Crowley (which derived most of its appeal, power and liberating potential from its religious style of anti-religion) and the new magic. The new approach is characterised by a kind of scientific anti-science. This is increasingly becoming known as Chaos Magic. It would be no more useful to dub Chaos Magic as pseudo-science than it would be to dub Crowley's ideas as pseudo-religion. It is astrology as it is normally practised that is mere pseudo-science much as satanism and freemasonry are pseudo-religion. Chaos Magic attempts to show that not only does magic fit comfortably within the interstices of science but that the higher reaches of scientific theory and empiricism actually demand that magic exists. This is somewhat analogous to the way in which many religious theories implied the possibility of theurgic or demonic magic. The best magic has always had a strong antinomian flavour. The most remarkable magicians have invariably fought against prevailing cultural norms and obsessions. Their victories represent not only a personal liberation but also an advance for humanity. History bequeaths us no records of the renegade shamanist magicians who must have brought about the advent of paganism, but we know a little of the anti-pagan magicians who created monotheism: Akhenaton, Moshe, Gautam, and so on. As monotheism became a steadily more repressive and obscene force, a new generation of magicians arose and fought it. Some fought too openly and were destroyed; others were more subtle and planted effective seeds of destruction on a purely philosophical level, and others hastened its destruction by taking theological and theurgical ideas to outrageous conclusions. The roll of honour is here much larger, including such notables as Gordiano Bruno, Cornelius Agrippa, John Dee, Cagliostro, Eliphas Levi, and recently,

Going to the Territory :: Going to the Territory Essays

Going to the Territory    Ralph Ellison’s essay â€Å"Going to the Territory† is truly a definition of American culture.   Ellison’s essay is a description of his journey from Oklahoma to Brown University and along the way he uncovers truths about the way Americans selectively acknowledge their history and ignore important aspects of their culture and let them fester into an uncontrollable problem.   Ellison had a connection to Brown University before he even made it out of grammar school.   His principal was the first colored man to graduate from Brown and Ellison received an award in memorial to Dr. Inman Page, Ellison’s grammar school principal.   It is through his time spent at Brown and his journey there that he realizes that American culture is based upon what people choose to hear and see.   â€Å"Considering the ironic fact that Americans continue to find themselves stumbling into (as well as over) details of their history, tonight’s is a most American occasion†¦At any rate, in the two hundreds years of our existence  Ã‚  Ã‚   a great deal has been overlooked or forgotten† (123).   Ellison says that Americans ignore the social problems of our country, which results in the problems growing out of control.   Race is one of these problems.   According to Ellison, race is a result of people’s personal interests.   People are so self interested that they look past the pressing issues of today.   â€Å"Our unknown history doesn’t stop having consequences each though we ignore them† (133).   Because we as Americans ignored such issues as racial inequality- in that the debt Americans owe the black community is not repayable.   We think that by instituting laws to make all persons equal is enough, but this equality is never achieved, but looked past as though it is fine.   Ellison speaks of Black culture as being imitated and mimicked by many non-white citizens.   He mentions Europeans dancing like the Negroes, and how they other members of society find it absurd for them to behave in such a way.   These people are subject to the prejudices of those who have overlooked the instances of inequality in the past.   Today, people who pose as Blacks are subject to much scrutiny and discrimination.   They are termed â€Å"wiggers† and and are often seen as offensive.   Ellison thought that this mimicking behavior was okay and acceptable.

Millenium Goals and Png

Millennium Development Goals 1. Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger * Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income, which is less than one dollar a day. * Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people * Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger. 2. Achieve Universal Primary Education * Ensure that by 2015, all children everywhere will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. . Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women * Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferable by 2005, and in all level of education by no later than 2015. 4. Reduce Child Mortality: * Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate. 5. Improve Maternal Health * Reduce by 3 quarters, between 1090 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio * Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health 6. Combat HIV/AIDs, Malaria and Other Diseas es Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDs * Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it * Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases 7. Ensure Environmental Sustainability * Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss * Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources. Halve, by 2015 the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation * By 2020, to have achieved significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers. 8. Develop a Global Partnership for Development * Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial system * Address the special needs of the least eveloped countries * Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and small island developing States (through the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States and the outcome of the twenty-second special session of the General Assembly) * Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through national and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term * In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries * In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications Is PNG on track to achieving the goals? Papua New Guinea is not on track to achieving any of the goals so far. Current status in accordance with national Government reporting says that the country is off track in achieving all of the goals, with goal number 8 having insufficient information to even make a judgment.

Primary and Secondary Education in the Netherlands and China Essay

In the Dutch education system one ought to have 12 years of education, starting at the primary school from the age of 4. After 8 years of primary education the children will do a CITO-test that determines to which level of secondary education they can attend. The Dutch secondary education consists of three levels, respectively: VMBO, HAVO and VWO. VMBO is a 4 year program that has a more practical focus than the remaining levels and it is subdivided into four groups: BBL, GL, KBL and TL. A VMBO degree gives access to the subsequent vocational programs (MBO), which are 2 to 4 years depending on the chosen courses. The intermediate level of the secondary education is the HAVO program of 5 years. After completion and obtaining the HAVO degree, one can choose to do either a higher vocational program (HBO) of 4 years or a MBO. However, recently the Dutch government has declared a HBO degree to be equivalent to a university’s bachelor degree and therefore it is more attractive to HAVO graduates to pursue a program in HBO. Finally, the highest level in the Dutch secondary education is VWO. After completion of this program of 6 years, one has access to all universities in the Netherlands. Unfortunately, some popular courses, such as medicine and psychology, do have a minimum grade as entry requirement and therefore students willing to pursue a career in those fields will have to face a strong competition. In the Chinese education system one has 9 years of compulsory education, starting at the primary school from an age of 6. However, before the primary school many Chinese children will go to a preschool to develop their linguistic skills. After 6 years of primary school, the children will do a national test that ultimately determines to which secondary school they can attend. In china there are no distinctive levels in the secondary school system, but reputation and ranking distinguish the schools. Therefore there are the so-called key-schools that only accept students with high grades or have rich parents. The first 3 years in the secondary education is the junior-stage, wherein one will have a central examination in the last year. The results of that examination will either allow the student to the senior-stage of the secondary education or direct the student to another school specialised in vocational education. The students who are able to enter the senior-stage will do another central exam in their last year. The results of that exam will subsequent give the student access to the universities in China. The popular universities usually have a good reputation and high national ranking, therefore only the students with the highest scores in their final exams can fulfil the entry requirements. In comparing the two education systems, one should have noticed that the Dutch primary education is extended over a longer period than the Chinese primary education, respectively 8 and 6 years. Moreover, the more complex Dutch secondary education system allows students to jump between levels. In other words, a hardworking student could start in VMBO-BBL in the first year and end up in VWO the next year. This switch between levels is not possible in the Chinese secondary education system and the central exams determine the future destiny of the students.